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Newton's mutual attraction force for masses \(m_1\), \(m_2\) is \(F=G\frac{m_1 m_2}{d^2}\), where \(d\) is the distance between them and \(G\) is the gravitational constant.

Shannon's entropy, \(H(X) = -\sum_{x \in \mathbf{X}} p(x) \log p(x)\), measures how informative the mass function \(p\) is about the occurrence of the possible values of variable \(X\).

Bayes's theorem, \(P(A|B) = \frac{P(B|A)P(A)}{P(B)}\), relates the two conditional probabilities involving events \(A\) and \(B\).